About Ricos Biology Journal (ISSN: 2959-3751 Electronic / 2959-3743 Print) Pioneering Discovery in the Life Sciences Ricos Biology Journal is a premier, open-access platform dedicated to advancing the frontiers of biological research. As one of the flagship publications from Ricos Publisher, we bridge the gap between foundational knowledge and cutting-edge innovation, publishing high-impact research across the entire spectrum of the life sciences. The journal's publication frequency has evolved to meet the growing demand for impactful research; it was published biannually during 2023 and 2024, transitioned to a monthly schedule in 2025, and now publishes monthly, with issues released during the final week of each month. Ricos Biology Journal is owned by Ricos Publisher and directed by Prof. Abouelhag H. A., Professor of Microbiology and Immunology, Microbiology and Immunology Dept., National Research Centre, Dokki, Egypt, 12622. Our Mission & Scope Our mission is to accelerate the dissemination of scientific knowledge to a global audience of researchers, scientists, educators, and the public. We welcome submissions that present significant, original contributions in both basic and advanced biological disciplines, from traditional fields to modern interdisciplinary explorations. Rigorous Editorial Standards To uphold the highest standards of scientific integrity and quality, every submission undergoes a stringent double-blind peer-review process. Our international editorial board, composed of distinguished academic scientists, oversees a meticulous workflow of review, editing, and ethical evaluation to ensure published articles are clear, credible, and impactful. Each manuscript is reviewed by at least two independent reviewers. Important Policies: Plagiarism: We maintain a zero-tolerance policy towards plagiarism. All manuscripts are screened rigorously. AI-Generated Content: The journal does not accept manuscripts that are AI-generated or artificially manipulated. Authors must confirm the originality of their work upon submission. Global Reach & Indexing Ricos Biology Journal is committed to maximizing the visibility and accessibility of research. As an open-access journal, our content is widely discoverable through leading global databases and repositories, including but not limited to: DOI (Crossref) Yandex Academy (Яндекс Образование) Google Scholar Scilit IICI Journals Master List Semantic Scholar ResearchGate Dimensions ResearchBib J-Gate Contact Information & Offices Ricos Publisher is a branch of Xeno Group Ltd., with a global operational footprint. Egyptian CEO Office: National Research Centre, Main Building, Room 402, 33 El Buhouth St, Ad Dokki, Cairo 12622, Egypt. United Kingdom Office: 7 Old Gloucester Street, London, United Kingdom, WC1N 3AX. United States Office: 473 Mundet Place, Ste US199820, Hillside, New Jersey, 07205, United States. Contact Details: Journal Editor in-chief: editor.in-chief@ricosbiology.net Journal Editor in-chief academic email: ha.abouelhag@nrc.sci.eg Journal Inquiries: info@ricosbiology.net Publisher Director: director@ricospublisher.us Publisher CEO: ceo@ricospublisher.us Phone/WhatsApp: +201120814505
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http:// creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Innate Immunity: Physical and Mechanical Barriers
Innate immunity constitutes the first line of host defense against invading pathogens (Turvey & Broide, 2010). Among its components, physical and mechanical barriers play a fundamental role by preventing microbial entry, colonization, and dissemination. This educational note provides a comprehensive overview of these barriers across different anatomical sites, including the skin, mucous membranes, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary tract, and eyes. It also details associated chemical factors (e.g., lysozyme, lactoferrin, gastric juice, bacteriocins) and cellular elements such as Langerhans cells, M cells, and alveolar macrophages (Abbas et al., 2020; Gallo & Hooper, 2012). The note emphasizes the synergistic action of physical, mechanical, and chemical mechanisms that together form an effective surveillance system. Understanding these barriers is essential for appreciating how the body resists infection before adaptive immunity is engaged.
Copyright (c) 2026 Abouelhag H. A. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Basic Concepts in Immunology and Components of the Immune System
This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts of immunology, focusing on the relationship between infection and the host immune system. It defines key terms such as infection, pathogenicity, and normal microbiota, and classifies infections by localisation, incidence, etiology, and systematic site. The chapter then distinguishes between the two major branches of the immune system: nonspecific (innate) immunity and specific (adaptive) immunity. The cellular components—including lymphocytes (B cells, T cells, natural killer cells), mononuclear phagocytes, granulocytes, mast cells, and dendritic cells—are described in terms of their origin, maturation, and function. The primary lymphoid organs (bone marrow and thymus) and secondary lymphoid tissues (spleen, lymph nodes, and mucosa‑associated lymphoid tissue) are explained as sites of lymphocyte development and antigen encounter. Finally, the physical and mechanical barriers that constitute the first line of defence—skin, mucous membranes, and associated secretions—are reviewed, with special attention to the role of M cells in mucosal immunity. Together, these elements provide the foundation for understanding how the body recognises and defends against microbial invaders while maintaining self‑tolerance.
mucosal associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Targeted Horizons in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): A Comprehensive Review of Passive Immunotherapy from Monoclonal Antibodies to Anti‑Idiotype Networks
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a heterogeneous autoimmune disease driven by dysregulated B‑cell activation, autoantibody production, and type I interferon signalling. For decades, treatment relied on non‑specific immunosuppressants and corticosteroids, which carry substantial toxicity and often fail to control disease. The past two decades have seen a paradigm shift with the emergence of passive immunotherapies that precisely target pathogenic pathways. This review provides a comprehensive overview of passive immunotherapy for SLE, covering monoclonal antibodies targeting B cells (rituximab, obinutuzumab, belimumab), cytokine pathways (anifrolumab), co‑stimulatory molecules, and emerging cellular therapies including CAR‑T cells. Recent network meta‑analyses show that telitacicept (odds ratio [OR] 5.2 for SRI‑4 response), anifrolumab (OR 1.6 for BICLA), and deucravacitinib (OR 1.6 for BICLA) are superior to standard therapy in moderate‑to‑severe SLE. The Phase III TULIP‑SC trial of subcutaneous anifrolumab achieved a 56.2% BICLA response rate vs. 37.1% for placebo (p=0.0002), with 29.0% attaining DORIS remission. The REGENCY Phase III trial of obinutuzumab in proliferative lupus nephritis demonstrated a complete renal response rate of 46.4% vs. 33.1% (p=0.02). A distinctive emerging frontier is the revival of anti‑idiotype antibody therapy—rooted in Jerne’s network theory—which aims to neutralise pathogenic autoantibodies or selectively eliminate autoreactive B‑cell clones, as supported by murine models and natural anti‑idiotypes in IVIg. Despite these advances, disease heterogeneity and the lack of standardised definitions for refractory SLE remain major challenges. CAR‑T therapy has shown encouraging early remission rates in refractory SLE, though long‑term safety and durability are uncertain. This review synthesises mechanisms, clinical evidence, safety profiles, guideline recommendations, and future directions, highlighting the potential of precision immunotherapies—including anti‑idiotype strategies—to achieve sustained remission in SLE.
Copyright (c) 2026 Eman A. Khairy, Abouelhag H. A. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs for the Control of Autoimmune Diseases: A Short Review of Mechanisms, Clinical Applications, and Emerging Perspectives
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) remain among the most widely prescribed medications worldwide for the management of pain and inflammation in autoimmune rheumatic diseases. This comprehensive review examines the pharmacological mechanisms, clinical applications, safety profiles, and evolving role of NSAIDs in the treatment of autoimmune diseases, with particular focus on rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis (PsA), axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA), and juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). NSAIDs exert their primary therapeutic effects through inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, thereby reducing prostaglandin synthesis. While highly effective for symptomatic relief, these agents do not modify the underlying disease process or prevent long-term structural damage, a critical distinction from disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs). The review synthesizes evidence from recent clinical trials, meta-analyses, and clinical practice guidelines, demonstrating that NSAIDs serve as first-line therapy for rapid symptom control, particularly as bridging therapy while DMARDs take effect. However, their use is constrained by significant safety concerns, including gastrointestinal toxicity, cardiovascular risks, and renal impairment. Selective COX-2 inhibitors offer improved gastrointestinal safety but are associated with increased cardiovascular events, with naproxen appearing least harmful among traditional NSAIDs. Emerging trends include the development of novel formulations such as topical NSAIDs, nitric oxide-donating hybrids, dual-acting anti-inflammatory agents, and targeted drug delivery systems. Despite the advent of biologic and targeted synthetic DMARDs, NSAIDs continue to occupy an important adjunctive role in autoimmune disease management when used judiciously with appropriate risk stratification. This review provides clinicians with evidence-based guidance for optimizing NSAID therapy while minimizing adverse effects, and highlights future directions for safer, more effective anti-inflammatory agents.
Copyright (c) 2026 Abouelhag H. A., Abeer Abd Elhadi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Beyond the Pair: A Hypothesis on Multi-Antibiotic Synergy for Optimized Bacterial Infection Control
The escalating crisis of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses an existential threat to modern medicine, necessitating innovative strategies beyond conventional single and dual-antibiotic therapies. This review article hypothesizes that employing more than two antibiotics concurrently may offer a superior paradigm for treating bacterial infections. We propose that a multi-antibiotic cocktail, featuring agents with distinct and overlapping modes of action (MoA), can simultaneously target multiple critical bacterial pathways (e.g., cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, folate metabolism, and nucleic acid replication). This polypharmacological approach is theorized to achieve potent synergistic effects, enabling a significant reduction in the effective dose of each individual antibiotic. Consequently, lower doses could diminish dose-dependent toxicity, reduce selective pressure for resistance mutations, and potentially lower overall treatment costs by shortening therapy duration and preventing treatment failures from resistant strains. This review synthesizes theoretical foundations, preliminary evidence from combination therapy, and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) principles to support this hypothesis. We critically analyze potential risks, including antagonism and toxicity, and propose a roadmap for future research using in vitro synergy models and in vivovalidation. We conclude that while challenging, the strategic use of multi-antibiotic (≥3 agents) regimens warrants rigorous investigation as a promising weapon against the rising tide of AMR.
The Western Anaphylaxis Paradox: Inverse Association Between Helminth‑Driven IgE Modulation and Type I Hypersensitivity in Agrarian Versus Industrialized Societies
Type I hypersensitivity disorders, particularly anaphylaxis, have reached epidemic proportions in highly industrialized, “civilized” nations while remaining conspicuously rare in low‑income, agrarian regions of the world. The hygiene hypothesis has traditionally attributed this disparity to reduced microbial exposure in early life (Strachan, 1989). This review advances a specific corollary: chronic endemic helminth infection in resource‑poor farming communities actively suppresses the atopic phenotype through multiple IgE‑mediated and immunoregulatory mechanisms. We synthesize epidemiological evidence showing a robust inverse relationship between helminth burden and allergic sensitization (Cooper et al., 2003; Scrivener et al., 2001), immunological data demonstrating how parasitic helminths induce polyclonal IgE and regulatory T cells that inhibit mast cell/basophil reactivity (Maizels & McSorley, 2016; Smits et al., 2010), and intervention studies in which anthelmintic treatment unmasks allergic responses (van den Biggelaar et al., 2004). Additionally, molecular cross‑reactivity between parasite antigens and major allergens (e.g., peanut Ara h 1) provides a direct “blocking antibody” mechanism (Santos et al., 2015). Collectively, these findings support the hypothesis that the absence of helminth‑driven immunomodulation in modern societies permits unopposed Type I hypersensitivity, whereas lifelong parasite exposure in poor farming communities confers relative protection against anaphylaxis.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sohier F. Syame, Abouelag H. A. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Bridging the Infected Defect: Modern Strategies for Canine Fracture‑Related Osteomyelitis
Fracture‑related bone infection (osteomyelitis) remains a challenging complication in canine orthopaedic surgery. This review synthesizes current evidence on the management of fracture‑related infections (FRIs) in dogs, with emphasis on surgical debridement, implant management, systemic antibiotics, and emerging therapies. The standard of care achieves clinical success in many cases but is limited by biofilm formation. Local antibiotic delivery systems, such as resorbable calcium sulfate beads and antibiotic‑impregnated hydrogels, provide high local drug concentrations. Bacteriophage therapy has shown superior biofilm clearance and callus formation compared to conventional antibiotics in a preclinical canine model. Advanced surgical techniques—circular external skeletal fixation, bone transport osteogenesis, and orthogonal plating with autografts—offer solutions for infected nonunions. This review highlights a multimodal, evidence‑based approach and identifies priorities for future clinical research.
Copyright (c) 2026 Khaled A. Abd El-Razik, Abouelhag H. A. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Polymer Nanoparticles and Gold Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy: A Comprehensive Review
Cancer remains a leading cause of mortality worldwide, driving the urgent need for more effective and less toxic therapeutic strategies. Nanoparticle‑based platforms have emerged as transformative tools in oncology, offering solutions to the limitations of conventional therapies such as systemic toxicity, poor bioavailability, and drug resistance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of two prominent classes of nanocarriers—polymer‑based nanoparticles (PNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)—in cancer therapy, with a strong focus on their applied uses and clinical translation. PNPs offer versatile drug delivery platforms with tunable physicochemical properties, high drug‑loading efficiency, and controlled release capabilities; several polymer‑based formulations are already in clinical use. AuNPs contribute unique plasmonic properties, biocompatibility, and multifunctional theranostic potential; they are being evaluated in numerous clinical trials for photothermal therapy, radiosensitization, and imaging. Furthermore, the convergence of these technologies into hybrid polymer‑gold nanosystems enables synergistic therapeutic effects, combining the targeting and delivery advantages of polymers with the diagnostic and phototherapeutic functionalities of gold. This review synthesizes recent advances in synthesis strategies, targeting mechanisms, applied clinical applications, and translational challenges, providing a framework for future research directions in precision nano‑oncology.
Copyright (c) 2026 Abouelhag H. A., Sohier F. Syame, Abeer Abd Elhadi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
From Garden to Paralysis: A One Health Educational Note on Foodborne Botulism with Insights from Animal and Environmental Links
Educational Note Summary Purpose: This educational note presents a hypothetical case of foodborne botulism to illustrate the clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of this rare but life-threatening neuroparalytic illness. The case is expanded with a One Health perspective, exploring botulism in animals and the links between animal‑source foods and human disease. The goal is to provide a teaching tool for medical, veterinary, and public health trainees. Key Learning Points: Recognize the classic triad of afebrile, descending flaccid paralysis with bulbar symptoms and a history of consuming home‑preserved or animal‑derived foods. Understand the pathophysiology of botulinum toxin at the neuromuscular junction. Apply timely diagnostic and therapeutic interventions, including antitoxin administration and respiratory support. Appreciate the One Health dimensions: botulism in livestock, wildlife, and the potential for transmission through animal‑source foods. Identify prevention strategies spanning safe home canning, animal feed management, slaughter inspection, and intersectoral surveillance.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sohier F. Syame, Abouelhag H. A. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Polymers as Immobilizing Matrices for Enhanced Antimicrobial Production in Biofermentors: A Critical Review
The escalating crisis of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) demands innovative production platforms for both existing and novel antimicrobial compounds. Biofermentors are central to the industrial manufacturing of these agents, yet conventional free‑cell fermentation suffers from inherent limitations such as low volumetric productivity, product inhibition, cell washout in continuous processes, and high downstream processing costs. Cell immobilization using polymer matrices has emerged as a powerful strategy to overcome these bottlenecks by retaining high cell densities, enabling continuous operation, and simplifying product recovery. This review critically examines the role of natural, synthetic, and composite polymers as immobilizing agents in biofermentors for antimicrobial production. The fundamental mechanisms of immobilization—entrapment, adsorption, covalent binding, encapsulation, and biofilm formation—are discussed alongside key polymer selection criteria. Recent applied uses are highlighted, including continuous nisin production with Lactococcus lactis immobilized in alginate‑polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) composite beads, penicillin V production using Penicillium chrysogenum biofilms on polyurethane foam, and recyclable magnetic alginate microspheres for actinorhodin production. Challenges such as mass‑transfer limitations, polymer stability, and scale‑up difficulties are critically analyzed. Future perspectives emphasize stimuli‑responsive polymers, 3D‑printed scaffolds, and computational modeling to enable next‑generation immobilized fermentation platforms. By integrating polymer science with bioreactor engineering, immobilized cell technology offers a sustainable path toward more efficient antimicrobial manufacturing.
Copyright (c) 2026 Abeer Abd Elhadi, Abouelhag H. A. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Impact of plastic pollution on fresh water biota of water streams around the picnic spots of Hilly region in the Swat Valley Pakistan
The presence of Blue water Ecosystem in the upper region of Swat has a diverse biomass of different species at different tropic levels. Among species involved in the food chain of these freshwater systems are Navicula subtilissima, Zygnema Cruciatum (Producer), Lathocerus americanus and other aquatic insects (Primary Consumer) of low temperature and Schizothorax plagiostomus (Secondary consumer). There is a drastic imbalance and disturbance in their communities due to water pollution. Plastic bottles are on top among the pollutants which are thrown by visitors especially at the picnic spots around these water bodies. Fish species have been observed to emigrate from the picnic spots towards deep, speedy and clean habitats in these aquatic ecosystems. Decomposition rate of these bottles is negligible and hence affecting aquatic fauna and flora Food in a very negative manner. Count of heavy metals in neutral and pure water remains below 0%. Due to such pollution this figure recorded in winter 2019-2020 was 13 % with an increasing trend. Regulatory authorities must pay attention to this issue on priority base and initiate remedial as well as preventive measures for the water of uphill beautiful streams and lakes.
Copyright (c) 2026 Murad Khan, Wisal Muhammad khan, Shujaul Mulk Khan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Missiles and Microbes: How the Amoxicillin–Clavulanic Acid Synergy Mirrors a Coordinated Iranian–Hezbollah Strike
The principles governing biological systems often mirror those observed in human geopolitics, strategy, and warfare. This review examines the synergistic action of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid against Gram‑negative bacteria as a paradigmatic example of such mirroring. Here, biology presents a smaller‑scale diagram of a larger‑world strategic concept: a combined‑arms offensive where one component neutralizes enemy defenses, enabling a second component to deliver the decisive strike with enhanced efficiency. Amoxicillin acts as the primary ordnance, while clavulanic acid functions as a counter‑defense system—analogous to a coordinated missile strike involving Iranian precision‑guided munitions and Hezbollah electronic warfare assets. Crucially, this synergy achieves bactericidal outcomes at lower individual concentrations, in shorter time, and at reduced overall cost—mirroring real‑world military efficiency where coordinated assets minimize expenditure and maximize speed. This article is designed as an illustrative learning tool, demonstrating that complex microbiological interactions can be understood through parallels with real‑world events, and that the logic of overcoming resistance is universal, whether in a bacterial cell or on a broader strategic stage.
Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery of MicroRNA: A Transformative Approach for Therapeutic Intervention
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNA molecules that play a pivotal role in post-transcriptional gene regulation. Their dysregulation is implicated in a myriad of diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions, making them attractive therapeutic targets or agents. However, the clinical translation of miRNA-based therapies faces significant hurdles, primarily due to poor stability, off-target effects, and inefficient cellular delivery. Nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as a powerful platform to overcome these barriers. This review comprehensively examines the current landscape of nanocarriers—including lipid-based, polymeric, inorganic, and hybrid nanoparticles—for the safe and effective delivery of miRNA. We discuss the rational design of NPs for enhanced targeting, cellular uptake, and endosomal escape. Furthermore, we highlight recent preclinical and clinical advances in miRNA-nanoparticle therapeutics for oncology, cardiovascular diseases, and other pathologies. Finally, we address the ongoing challenges, biocompatibility concerns, regulatory landscape, and future perspectives in this rapidly evolving field, emphasizing innovations from the last five years.
Copyright (c) 2026 Hussein Abouelhag https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Bacteriophage Therapy as a Novel Strategy Against Antimicrobial Resistance in China: A Comprehensive Review
The rapid escalation of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a critical threat to global public health, rendering first-line antibiotics ineffective and jeopardizing modern medical practices. In China, the high burden of bacterial infections coupled with significant antibiotic misuse has created a pressing need for alternative therapeutic agents. Bacteriophage (phage) therapy, which utilizes viruses to specifically infect and lyse pathogenic bacteria, has re-emerged as a promising complementary or alternative approach to traditional antibiotics. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the current state of phage therapy research, development, and application within China. We outline the fundamental biology of phages and their mechanisms of action against multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. The review systematically examines China's AMR landscape, the historical and contemporary efforts in phage discovery and biobank construction, and the progress in preclinical and clinical applications. We highlight significant case studies, including compassionate use and clinical trials for infections caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. Furthermore, we discuss the unique regulatory challenges, manufacturing hurdles, and scientific obstacles (e.g., phage resistance, narrow host range) that must be addressed. Finally, we explore future directions, including the engineering of phage cocktails and lysins, synergy with antibiotics, and the integration of phage therapy into China's national action plan on AMR. The synthesis of evidence indicates that while phage therapy is still in a developmental phase in China, it holds immense potential as a precise, adaptable tool in the ongoing battle against AMR, warranting accelerated investment and structured translational research.
The Messenger RNA (mRNA) Revolution: From Fundamental Biology to Therapeutic Applications and Future Horizons
Messenger RNA (mRNA) has evolved from a fundamental biological intermediary to a versatile platform for therapeutic and prophylactic interventions. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the mRNA field, beginning with the essential biology of natural mRNA processing and regulation. We detail the key engineering breakthroughs that transformed synthetic mRNA into a viable drug modality, including nucleoside modifications and sequence optimization to enhance stability and translational efficiency while modulating immunogenicity (Karikó, Buckstein, Ni, & Weissman, 2005; Pardi, Hogan, Porter, & Weissman, 2018). A critical discussion of delivery technologies, with a focus on lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), explains how these carriers enable in vivoapplication (Hou, Zaks, Langer, & Dong, 2021). The review then surveys the expansive therapeutic landscape, from the paradigm-shifting success of COVID-19 vaccines (Polack et al., 2020) to applications in protein replacement therapy, cancer immunotherapy, and gene editing. Finally, we examine persistent challenges—including delivery refinement, durability of response, and scaling manufacturing and envision future directions such as circular RNA, personalized neoantigen vaccines, and programmable protein therapeutics. The convergence of mRNA biology, chemistry, and delivery science heralds a new era in medicine with the potential to address a vast array of human diseases.
The Epidemiological Nexus: Age, Geography, and Infectious Disease in Egyptian Cattle
Infectious diseases impose a severe constraint on cattle productivity, food security, and the national economy in Egypt. The susceptibility to, and manifestation of, these diseases are profoundly influenced by the age of the host animal, a factor often overlooked in broad control strategies. This review systematically synthesizes the scientific literature on Egypt's major bovine infectious diseases to elucidate the critical correlation between host age and disease epidemiology and to map the associated geographical distribution patterns. Our analysis reveals distinct age-specific syndromes: neonates (0-1 month) are dominated by enteric pathogens like E. coli and Cryptosporidium; growing calves (1-12 months) are most susceptible to severe outcomes from foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) persistence; while adult cattle are most impacted by production diseases such as brucellosis, mastitis, and chronic fascioliasis. Geographically, the Nile Delta is identified as a multifactorial hotspot due to high animal density, intensive farming, and irrigation networks, whereas Upper Egypt and newly reclaimed areas exhibit distinct outbreak dynamics. The movement of specific age cohorts, such as pregnant heifers and weaned calves, is a key driver of disease spread. This synthesis underscores the imperative for a dual-targeting control strategy: implementing age-specific interventions within defined geographical risk zones. We conclude with evidence-based recommendations for age-stratified surveillance, vaccination, and management practices tailored to Egypt's diverse farming systems to enhance disease control and livestock productivity.
The Multikingdom Microbiome: Composition, Communication, and Collective Impact
The concept of a "microbiome" has evolved from a census of bacteria to a holistic framework encompassing the complex community of Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya, and viruses, their collective genomes, and their dynamic interactions within an environmental niche. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the composition and function of multikingdom microbiomes. We begin by defining the modern microbiome, detailing the distinct roles of its cellular constituents from the Three Domains of life. We then explore the critical regulatory influence of the virome, focusing on bacteriophages. The review further examines the sophisticated chemical communication networks, such as quorum sensing, that enable microbial communities to coordinate behavior. Finally, we address the "biomass paradox"—how these minuscule organisms, through their immense collective genetic potential and integrated activity, exert macroscopic influences on host physiology and global biogeochemical cycles. Understanding this intricate ecosystem is fundamental to advancing fields from medicine to environmental science.
microRNA (miRNA) Therapeutics: From Gene Regulation to Clinical Applications and Future Directions
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous, small non-coding RNAs that function as critical post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression, influencing virtually every cellular process. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the miRNA therapeutics field, beginning with the fundamental biology of miRNA biogenesis and their mechanisms of action in gene silencing. We detail the two primary therapeutic strategies: miRNA inhibition using antisense oligonucleotides (antagomirs) and miRNA replacement using synthetic miRNA mimics. The review critically examines the significant delivery challenges and evaluates current delivery platforms including lipid nanoparticles and GalNAc conjugates (van Rooij & Kauppinen, 2014; Rupaimoole & Slack, 2017). We survey the expanding therapeutic landscape in human medicine, focusing on oncology, cardiovascular, and metabolic diseases (Hanna, Hossain, & Kocerha, 2019). A dedicated section explores the burgeoning field of miRNA applications in veterinary medicine, particularly in cattle and water buffalo, where miRNAs offer revolutionary tools for enhancing production traits (milk yield, meat quality), improving reproductive efficiency, and combating endemic diseases like mastitis and foot-and-mouth disease (Miretti et al., 2013; Ioannidis & Donadeu, 2016). Finally, we discuss challenges in specificity and delivery, while outlining future directions including species-specific design, combination therapies, and the integration of miRNA therapeutics into precision livestock farming. The dual progress in human and veterinary applications underscores miRNAs' potential as transformative therapeutic agents across species.
The Shape-Shifting Scourge: A Century of H1N1 Influenza - From Pandemic Terror to Persistent Threat
Influenza A(H1N1) represents a paradigm of viral adaptability and persistent pandemic threat, having shaped public health responses and scientific understanding for over a century. This comprehensive interdisciplinary review synthesizes virological, epidemiological, clinical, and socio-political perspectives on H1N1, from the 1918 "Spanish Flu" pandemic to the contemporary circulation of A(H1N1)pdm09 as a seasonal pathogen. We examine the molecular mechanisms underpinning H1N1's evolutionary success, including its segmented genome facilitating antigenic shift and drift, and its sophisticated repertoire of accessory proteins that modulate host immunity. The review provides novel analyses of major pandemics, re-evaluating the 1918 pandemic through modern genomic archaeology and detailing the complex, decade-long evolutionary pathway that culminated in the 2009 pandemic strain. A significant focus is dedicated to case studies of national responses, with an in-depth examination of Egypt's controversial 2009 intervention—the mass culling of pigs—analyzed through the intersecting lenses of epidemiology, economics, social justice, and cultural politics. The review incorporates the latest scientific advances (2020-2024), including insights from the COVID-19 era on viral co-circulation, immunity debt, and mRNA vaccine platforms. We assess current vaccine effectiveness, antiviral resistance patterns, and the promising development of universal influenza vaccines. Furthermore, the review critically addresses persistent challenges in global health equity, preparedness governance, and the implementation of a truly integrated "One Health" approach. By integrating 100 contemporary references, this work argues that H1N1 is not merely a seasonal nuisance but a persistent biosocial phenomenon that reveals the intricate connections between viral evolution, animal reservoirs, human societies, and public health infrastructure. The review concludes that future mitigation requires sustained investment in equitable surveillance, next-generation countermeasures, and strategies that address the socio-economic determinants of outbreak impact, providing a roadmap for confronting both seasonal influenza and the next inevitable pandemic.
Copyright (c) 2026 Abouelhag H.A. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Rewriting the Code of Life in Community: CRISPR Interference and Activation as Precision Tools for Microbiome Engineering
The human microbiome, a complex ecosystem of trillions of microorganisms, is intricately linked to host health and disease. Traditional methods for manipulating these communities—such as antibiotics, probiotics, or fecal microbiota transplants—lack precision and can cause broad, often irreversible, ecological disturbances. The advent of CRISPR-Cas-derived technologies, specifically CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) and CRISPR activation (CRISPRa), offers a paradigm shift. These tools allow for targeted, tunable, and reversible transcriptional modulation without altering the underlying genomic DNA. This review comprehensively examines the development and application of CRISPRi/a for microbiome engineering. We detail the mechanistic principles of catalytically “dead” Cas9 (dCas9) fused to repressor (KRAB) or activator (VP64, p65AD) domains for programmable gene knockdown and upregulation. Their application highlights unique advantages for microbiome manipulation: reversibility, multiplexibility, and species- or strain-specific targeting within consortia. We explore applications including (1) deciphering microbial gene function in situ, (2) engineering probiotic and live biotherapeutic products for enhanced therapeutic delivery, (3) modulating community-wide metabolic pathways to produce valuable compounds or degrade pollutants, and (4) precisely correcting dysbiosis associated with diseases like inflammatory bowel disease, metabolic disorders, and cancer. We critically discuss the significant challenges facing clinical translation, including delivery systems (e.g., phage, conjugative plasmids), ecological stability, off-target effects, and ethical considerations. Finally, we outline future perspectives, emphasizing the integration of CRISPRi/a with multi-omics, machine learning for guide RNA design, and the development of novel Cas variants with improved specificity. Together, CRISPRi and CRISPRa represent a powerful and versatile frontier in synthetic biology, enabling the rational design and control of microbial ecosystems for human health and environmental sustainability.
Copyright (c) 2025 Abouelhag H. A. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Microbial Climate Engine: Quantitative Analysis of Methane Fluxes, Carbon Sequestration, and Tipping Points in the Anthropocene
Microorganisms govern Earth's most critical biogeochemical cycles, yet their quantitative contributions to climate change remain inadequately represented in predictive models. This comprehensive review synthesizes data from over 100 meta-analyses, global inventories, and experimental studies to establish statistically robust estimates of microbial climate forcing. We calculate that microbial methanogenesis contributes 292 (284–308) Tg CH₄ yr⁻¹, representing 74% of total global emissions, with wetlands (145 ± 30 Tg CH₄ yr⁻¹) and agriculture (142 [115–175] Tg CH₄ yr⁻¹) as dominant sources. Concurrently, microbial carbon stabilization processes sequester 1.6–2.3 Pg C yr⁻¹ in terrestrial systems, with microbial necromass constituting >50% of stable soil organic carbon pools. However, meta-analysis of 49 warming studies reveals a critical imbalance: soil heterotrophic respiration (Q₁₀ = 2.4 ± 0.1) increases more rapidly than primary production, potentially converting global soils from a net sink to a source by 2050. Permafrost thaw represents an irreversible tipping point, with projected releases of 85–350 Pg C by 2100 mediated almost entirely by microbial activation. We demonstrate that incorporating mechanistic microbial modules into Earth System Models reduces projection uncertainty by 30–50% for key carbon cycle feedbacks. The review concludes that targeted microbial management—including precision agriculture, wetland restoration, and methanogen inhibition—represents a viable pathway to mitigate 0.5–2.0 Gt CO₂-eq yr⁻¹, but requires urgent policy integration and investment in microbial observatory networks.
Clostridial Toxins: From Molecular Sabotage to Therapeutic Salvation
Clostridial toxins represent some of the most potent biological poisons known to humanity, responsible for diseases ranging from the spastic paralysis of tetanus to the life-threatening diarrhea of Clostridioides difficile infection. These sophisticated protein exotoxins function with exquisite specificity, targeting core components of eukaryotic cell machinery such as the SNARE complex and Rho GTPases. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the structure-function relationships, molecular mechanisms, and pathogenesis of the major clostridial toxins, including botulinum and tetanus neurotoxins, the large clostridial toxins of C. difficile, and key toxins from Clostridium perfringens. Furthermore, we explore the remarkable therapeutic pivot of these toxins, detailing their successful application in treating a wide array of medical conditions and their potential in novel biotechnological platforms. Finally, we discuss emerging research directions, including the development of next-generation antitoxins, vaccines, and the engineering of toxin-based delivery systems.
Copyright (c) 2025 Hussein Abouelhag https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Post-Parturition Umbilical Cord Bacterial Infections (Omphalitis): Etiology, Management, and Global Health
Omphalitis, a bacterial infection of the umbilical stump and surrounding periumbilical tissues, represents a significant cause of preventable neonatal morbidity and mortality, particularly in resource-limited settings. While its incidence is low in high-income countries due to standardized hygienic practices, it remains a formidable clinical challenge in vulnerable populations globally. This infection typically presents within the first two weeks of life, with a spectrum ranging from mild cellulitis to a life-threatening systemic illness. The pathophysiology involves bacterial invasion through the necrotic cord stump, with the unique patency of the umbilical vessels facilitating rapid progression to severe complications such as necrotizing fasciitis, umbilical vein thrombophlebitis, portal vein thrombosis, and sepsis. The bacteriology is often polymicrobial, predominantly featuring Staphylococcus aureus (including MRSA), Streptococcus pyogenes, and Gram-negative organisms like Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Risk factors are multifactorial, including low birth weight, unhygienic cord care practices, and application of harmful traditional substances. Diagnosis is primarily clinical, supported by laboratory investigations (inflammatory markers, blood cultures) and imaging, notably ultrasonography, to detect deep tissue involvement. Management necessitates a prompt, aggressive approach with broad-spectrum intravenous antibiotics, with surgical intervention required for complications like abscess formation or necrotizing fasciitis. Crucially, prevention is the cornerstone of reducing the disease burden, with "dry cord care" recommended in hygienic settings and topical application of chlorhexidine to the umbilical stump proven to significantly reduce incidence and mortality in high-risk environments. This comprehensive review synthesizes current evidence on the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, management, and preventative strategies for omphalitis, highlighting the critical intersection of clinical vigilance and public health intervention.
Recombinant Nanobiotechnology for Swallowable Insulin: Innovations in Noninvasive Diabetes Therapy
The global burden of diabetes mellitus continues to rise, creating an urgent demand for innovative and patient-friendly insulin delivery systems that improve long-term metabolic control. Although conventional injectable insulin remains the therapeutic cornerstone, its invasive administration leads to discomfort, inconvenience, and poor adherence, particularly among individuals requiring lifelong therapy. Recent advances in recombinant peptide engineering and nanobiotechnology are revolutionizing diabetes treatment by introducing swallowable insulin formulations that replicate physiological insulin secretion with greater precision and convenience. Recombinant insulin analogs are now stabilized through nanoencapsulation within biocompatible and pH-responsive polymers, as well as mucoadhesive matrices that protect them from gastric and enzymatic degradation. These nanoformulations facilitate targeted intestinal absorption by interacting with mucosal receptors, thereby enhancing permeability and bioavailability. Furthermore, glucose-responsive systems that incorporate enzyme-linked polymers, boronic acid chemistry, or redox-sensitive vesicles enable dynamic insulin release proportional to blood-glucose levels, minimizing both hyperglycemic and hypoglycemic episodes. At the molecular level, optimizing the sequences of recombinant insulin has made it more stable when it folds, more resistant to proteolysis, and faster at binding to receptors. The integration of these engineered peptides with multifunctional nanocarriers has resulted in intelligent oral delivery platforms capable of synchronized insulin release in response to physiological cues. Such convergence of molecular biology, nanomaterials science, and biomedical engineering represents a decisive step toward achieving noninvasive and patient-centered diabetes management. Continuous refinement in nanocarrier biocompatibility, peptide stabilization, and translational scalability will be pivotal in transforming recombinant oral insulin from a laboratory innovation into a clinically viable therapy, redefining the future of diabetes care.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rehan H. Naqvi, Zameer Ahmed, Sambreen Zameer https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
PCR Optimization Prior to Genetic Diversity Assessment of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Genotypes Using Inter-Primer Binding Site (IPBS) Markers
This study aimed to accurately and reliably determine the genetic diversity among sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) genotypes, which is an important oil crop. To achieve this, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) conditions based on Inter-Primer Binding Site (IPBS) molecular markers were optimized to reveal genetic variation, which forms the basis of plant breeding programs. For the methodology, DNA was isolated from fresh sesame leaves grown under controlled conditions using the CTAB method and analyzed from 50 local sesame lines. Since PCR success is directly dependent on the specificity of the primers and reaction parameters like temperature, the gradient temperature PCR method was applied using 22 different iPBS primers to determine the optimal annealing temperatures. According to the findings, 20 out of the 22 primers successfully generated polymorphic bands, revealing genetic diversity. Determining the optimal PCR conditions was critical for identifying the binding temperature at which iPBS primers exhibited the highest polymorphism. For example, Primer 2277 showed high amplification and activity at 47.6 and 50.9°C, while Primer 2218 was highly active at 50.9°C. This optimization establishes a precise molecular foundation that will contribute to future sesame breeding programs.
Copyright (c) 2025 Eliş Seval, POLAT BÜŞRA, KIZILGEÇİ FERHAT, TÜRKOĞLU ARAS, Mehmet YILDIRIM https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Improving probiotic preservation through phycocyanin enriched skim milk as a protective drying medium
The viability and functionality of probiotics are strongly influenced by environmental stressors encountered during processing and storage. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of phycocyanin supplementation and drying in skim milk, followed by vacuum desiccation at 50 °C, on three probiotic strains: Limosilactobacillus reuteri, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, and Lacticaseibacillus casei. Probiotic viability, metabolic activity, and surface properties were monitored over 12 months of storage at room temperature, refrigeration, and freezing, with assessments performed every three months. Results showed that phycocyanin supplementation markedly improved survival, particularly at room temperature, with increases of up to 2 log CFU/g. Drying in skim milk further enhanced stability and promoted biofilm-forming ability. Additionally, phycocyanin positively affected metabolic activity and cell surface interactions. Overall, these findings demonstrate that combining phycocyanin supplementation with vacuum desiccation in skim milk represents an effective approach for enhancing long-term probiotic preservation under diverse storage conditions.
probiotics ; phycocyanin; skim milk; hydrophobicity; adhesion; viability
Copyright (c) 2025 Ibtissem Chakroun, kais Fedhila, Jamel Jebali, Youssef Krichen https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Rice Straw Availability and Post-harvest Management Practices of Rice Farmers in Isabela, Philippines
The prevalent use of combine harvester challenges rice farmers to efficiently manage rice straw. There is also an extremely low adoption of sustainable rice straw management by rice farmers. Hence, estimation of the total straw biomass and determination of rice straw management practices are necessary. The main objective of this study was to assess the availability of rice straw and postharvest management options of rice farmers. Case study was employed. Data gathered from household surveys and analyzed through descriptive statistics. Analysis revealed that the mean straw biomass ha-1 is 5,219.73 kg. Moreover, type of soil and planting method influenced the generation of higher quantities of rice straw. In addition, sex, household size, rice production training, farm organization, land ownership, machine ownership, road structure, and type of soil showed significant relationship to the postharvest management practices of rice farmers. Lastly, rice farmers predominantly practiced in-situ straw incorporation but only few practiced crop rotation, rice ratooning, straw mushroom production, and surface retention. It has been demonstrated that there is a massive contribution of rice straw biomass in Isabela. This provided data for authorities to carry out plans and initiatives, and for rice farmers to employ appropriate management to optimize the potentials of rice straw for circular economy. The findings suggest that political will, partnership and collaboration, provision of physical infrastructures, and active participation of rice farmers are the key factors to the efficient rice straw management. Through this, rice farmers can strengthen their technical efficiency and can cultivate environmental efficiency.
Copyright (c) 2025 JEFFREY GINEZ, Marcelino U. Siladan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Glucose-Responsive Swallowable Insulin: A Novel Paradigm in Diabetes Management
The global prevalence of diabetes mellitus has necessitated the exploration of innovative therapeutic strategies that enhance patient compliance and optimize glycemic control. Conventional insulin therapy, though effective, often poses challenges due to invasive administration, fluctuating absorption, and limited patient adherence. The development of a glucose-responsive swallowable insulin system represents a transformative advancement in diabetes care. This approach integrates polymeric nanocarriers and bioengineered peptides that respond dynamically to blood glucose fluctuations, releasing insulin in a controlled and physiological manner. Polymeric micelles, hydrogels, and phenylboronic acid-modified nanocarriers have shown remarkable glucose sensitivity, making them potential candidates for oral formulations. These systems are designed to remain stable in the gastrointestinal environment while releasing insulin upon sensing hyperglycemia. The incorporation of glucose oxidase-based feedback mechanisms further enhances precision by coupling enzymatic sensing with insulin release kinetics. This manuscript critically reviews molecular design strategies, in vitro and in vivo results, and translational challenges in developing glucose-responsive swallowable insulin. Statistical models were applied to evaluate the relationship between glucose concentration and insulin release kinetics, revealing a high degree of correlation (R² > 0.95) between predicted and observed values. The findings underscore the promise of swallowable insulin as a non-invasive, self-regulating, and patient-centered therapeutic alternative. Future studies should emphasize large-scale clinical validation, long-term stability, and integration with digital glucose monitoring platforms to ensure real-world applicability
Copyright (c) 2025 Naqvi R., Ahmed Z., Zameer S. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
A Looming Catastrophe: A Comprehensive Review of Post-Amputation Infections, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Limb Salvage in the Gaza Crisis
The military offensive in Gaza has precipitated a public health crisis of a magnitude and severity rarely witnessed in the 21st century. A defining feature is the epidemic of complex traumatic injuries necessitating a massive number of amputations, estimated to be in the tens of thousands. Performed under a total siege that has decimated the healthcare system, these procedures are fraught with an extreme risk of life-threatening post-amputation infections. This systematic review synthesizes data from humanitarian agencies, frontline medical reports, and public health analyses to delineate the multifactorial etiology of this iatrogenic catastrophe. We expand upon the known drivers non-sterile surgery, antibiotic shortages, and the "torso amputation" phenomenon by incorporating detailed discussions on the emerging crisis of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), the specific immunological vulnerabilities of a malnourished population, and the psychological trauma compounding physical recovery. The situation represents a violation of the principles of medical neutrality and has created a cohort of survivors with profound, long-term disability. This review concludes that the infection crisis is a man-made outcome of siege warfare and demands an urgent, coordinated international response focused on unimpeded humanitarian access, medical evacuation, and the establishment of advanced wound care and rehabilitation services to mitigate a legacy of suffering.
A Perfect Storm: The Escalating Crisis of Antimicrobial Resistance in Surgical Wounds in Gaza
The Gaza conflict has precipitated a catastrophic humanitarian crisis, creating an ideal environment for the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This review synthesizes evidence from humanitarian reports, medical testimonials, and preliminary data to analyze the multifactorial drivers of AMR in surgical wounds. The collapse of healthcare infrastructure, critical shortages of antibiotics and supplies, the impossibility of infection prevention and control (IPC), and the unique nature of war injuries converge into a perfect storm. With laboratories destroyed and antimicrobial stewardship abandoned, clinicians are forced into empirical, often ineffective antibiotic use, rapidly selecting for resistant pathogens like multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. The consequences are increased morbidity, amputations, and mortality for patients, while posing a severe threat to global health security by creating reservoirs of untreatable infections. This review concludes that the situation in Gaza represents a profound failure of medical ethics and international law, demanding urgent, coordinated intervention to prevent a long-term AMR catastrophe.